Gmail Automation Tips: 10 Advanced Workflows for Teams

Gmail automation is the practice of using filters, templates, scheduling, and third-party integrations to reduce repetitive email tasks for teams. The right automations eliminate manual sorting, speed up response times, and give team members hours back each week.

McKinsey Global Institute estimated that interaction workers spend 28% of the workweek on email, roughly 11 hours reading, replying, sorting and searching. That’s more than a full working day consumed by inbox management alone. For teams handling shared addresses like support@, sales@, or info@, the burden multiplies as multiple people coordinate on the same stream of messages.

Most teams use Gmail at a fraction of its capacity. They compose, reply, and archive. But Gmail’s native features, combined with Google Workspace integrations and a few targeted third-party tools, can automate the repetitive work that eats those 11 hours. This guide covers 10 specific workflows, starting with native Gmail capabilities and progressing to advanced team-level automations.

Why Gmail Automation Matters for Teams

Individual email automation is helpful. Team-level email automation is transformational. The difference is scale: when five people each save 90 minutes per day through automation, the team reclaims 37.5 hours per week. That’s nearly a full-time employee’s worth of capacity recovered.

The math gets sharper when you consider the true cost. Workplace email research from cloudHQ shows that the average office worker receives 121 emails daily. Only about 30% of those emails require immediate action. The rest is noise that can be filtered, sorted, or handled automatically.

Key Data Point

Field research shows that knowledge workers using AI-assisted tools spend 3.6 fewer hours per week on email, a 31% reduction. Even without AI, teams that implement basic filter and template automations in Gmail report saving 5-8 hours per person per week on manual email handling.

Beyond time savings, automation reduces errors. Manual forwarding to the wrong person, forgetting to respond to a VIP customer, losing an attachment in a cluttered inbox: these are human mistakes that automated workflows prevent. Consistency improves when rules rather than memory govern how email gets handled.

What Can Gmail Automate Natively, and When Do You Need a Third-Party Tool?

Gmail automates sorting, canned replies, scheduled sending and forwarding on its own. Anything that has to reach another application, run on a timer, or judge message content needs Apps Script, AppSheet, Workspace Studio or a third-party connector.

What you want to do	Native in Gmail?	The limit Google publishes	When to escalate
Sort and label incoming mail	Yes, with filters	Google’s Gmail API reference publishes a cap of 1,000 filters per account.	Escalate when routing depends on message content rather than on sender or subject.
Send a canned reply	Yes, with templates	Google documents templates as available only in Gmail on the web.	Escalate when you need templates on mobile, or shared across a team automatically.
Send later	Yes, with schedule send	Google publishes a cap of 100 scheduled emails queued at once.	Escalate when you need recurring sends or send-time optimization.
Forward mail automatically	Yes, with filters	Google publishes a cap of 40 auto-forwarding filters, and 10,000 auto-forwarded messages a day.	Escalate to admin routing rules when forwarding has to survive a person leaving.
Save attachments to Drive	No	Google publishes no native path for this, so it needs Apps Script or a connector.	Escalate immediately, because no native option exists.
Trigger on a Gmail event	Partly, through AppSheet	Google documents AppSheet Gmail events as a beta, with no attachment support and no webhook support.	Escalate to Apps Script when you need attachments or a webhook.
Summarize or classify with AI	Yes, through Workspace Studio	Google made Workspace Studio generally available on December 3, 2025, on named Workspace and Education editions.	Escalate when your edition is unsupported, or an administrator has switched it off.

Every Gmail Automation Limit Google Publishes

These caps decide what a workflow can do before it stops working without warning. None of the pages ranking for “gmail automation” collects them in one place, and Google scatters them across four properties.

Limit	Figure Google publishes	Which Google property publishes it
Filters per account	Google publishes a maximum of 1,000 filters.	The Gmail API reference on developers.google.com, and nowhere in consumer Gmail Help, which states no limit at all.
Auto-forwarding filters	Google publishes a cap of 40.	The Workspace sending-limits page on knowledge.workspace.google.com.
Auto-forwarded messages per day	Google publishes 10,000, and excludes them from the daily send limit.	The Workspace sending-limits page on knowledge.workspace.google.com.
Scheduled emails queued at once	Google publishes a maximum of 100.	Gmail Help on support.google.com.
Template platform support	Google documents templates as usable only in Gmail on a computer.	Gmail Help on support.google.com.
Workspace messages sent per day	Google publishes 2,000, dropping to 1,500 for mail merge and 500 during a trial.	knowledge.workspace.google.com.
Recipients per message	Google publishes 2,000, of which at most 500 may be external.	knowledge.workspace.google.com.
Recipients per message through the Gmail API	Google publishes 500, lower than the web figure for the same account.	knowledge.workspace.google.com.
Consumer Gmail daily send limit	Google publishes 500 messages or 500 recipients per day.	Gmail Help on support.google.com.
Apps Script email recipients per day	Google publishes 100 on consumer Gmail and 1,500 on Workspace.	The Apps Script quotas page on developers.google.com.
Apps Script recipients per message	Google publishes 50.	The Apps Script quotas page on developers.google.com.
Apps Script triggers per user per script	Google publishes 20.	The Apps Script quotas page on developers.google.com.
Apps Script runtime per execution	Google publishes 6 minutes.	The Apps Script quotas page on developers.google.com.
AppSheet Gmail event automations	Google labels the feature beta, with no attachment support and no webhook support.	AppSheet Help on support.google.com.

Workflow 1: Auto-Sort Incoming Email with Filters and Labels

This is the foundation. Every team-level Gmail automation strategy starts with filters and labels that sort incoming email automatically. Without this layer, your inbox is an unsorted pile that demands manual attention for every message.

How to Set It Up

Open Gmail Settings, go to “Filters and Blocked Addresses,” and click “Create a new filter.” Define your criteria: sender address, subject keywords, whether the email has attachments, or specific words in the body. Then choose the action: apply a label, skip the inbox, forward to a teammate, star it, or mark it as read.

For teams, build a shared label taxonomy before creating filters. Agree on label names like “Client-Urgent,” “Internal-FYI,” “Vendor-Invoices,” and “Support-Inbound.” Consistency across the team ensures everyone can find and process emails the same way.

Pro Tip

Create a “Needs Response” label and filter all emails from your key clients or VIP contacts to automatically receive this label. Pair this with a daily routine of clearing the “Needs Response” label first. This simple system ensures high-priority emails never get buried under newsletter subscriptions and internal notifications.

Example Filter Set for a Customer-Facing Team

Filter 1: Emails from @yourdomain.com (internal) get labeled “Internal” and skip the inbox. Filter 2: Emails containing “invoice” or “payment” get labeled “Finance-Review.” Filter 3: Emails from your top 20 client domains get labeled “Client-Priority” and starred. Filter 4: Emails from known newsletter senders get labeled “Newsletters” and archived automatically.

This four-filter setup eliminates manual sorting for roughly 60-70% of a typical inbox. The remaining emails are the ones that need human attention.

Workflow 2: Eliminate Repetitive Replies with Templates

Templates (formerly called canned responses) let you save pre-written emails and insert them into any compose window in two clicks. For teams that answer the same types of questions repeatedly, templates eliminate minutes of redundant typing per email.

How to Set It Up

Go to Gmail Settings, click the “Advanced” tab, and enable “Templates.” To save a template, compose an email with your standard response, click the three-dot menu in the compose window, select “Templates,” then “Save draft as template.” To use a saved template, open a new compose window, click the three-dot menu, and choose the template to insert.

Build templates for your team’s top 10 most common email types. For a support team, this might include: acknowledgment of receipt, status update on an open issue, request for additional information, escalation notification, and resolution confirmation. For a sales team: meeting confirmation, proposal follow-up, pricing overview, and demo scheduling.

Sharing Templates Across a Team

Gmail’s native templates are personal to each user. To share templates across a team, you have three options. First, create a shared Google Doc with template text that team members copy and paste. Second, use a tool like Gmelius or Hiver that provides a shared template library accessible from within Gmail. Third, use Google Workspace’s delegated access to create templates in a shared account.

We recommend the shared inbox tool approach for teams larger than three people. Centralized template management ensures everyone uses the latest approved version, and usage tracking shows which templates get used most.

Workflow 3: Route Emails to the Right Person Automatically

Email routing ensures that incoming messages reach the right team member without manual forwarding. This is critical for teams managing a shared address where different people handle different types of requests.

Native Gmail Approach: Auto-Forwarding with Filters

Combine Gmail filters with auto-forwarding to route emails by criteria. For example: emails containing “billing” in the subject line forward to your finance team lead. Emails from specific client domains forward to their assigned account manager. Emails with attachments over a certain size forward to a shared Google Drive folder via a Zapier automation.

To set up auto-forwarding, go to Settings, then “Forwarding and POP/IMAP,” add the forwarding address, and verify it. Then create a filter with the “Forward it to” action. Note that Gmail allows only one forwarding address per filter, so complex routing requires multiple filters.

Advanced Approach: Shared Inbox Tools

For teams that need round-robin assignment, load balancing, or keyword-based routing across multiple team members, a shared inbox tool is the better solution. Hiver adds auto-assignment rules directly inside Gmail. Emails matching specific criteria get assigned to designated team members with visible ownership tracking.

Gmelius provides similar routing automation and adds Kanban board views for visualizing email workflows. Both tools operate entirely within Gmail, so team members don’t need to switch to a separate application.

Workflow 4: Schedule Emails for Optimal Send Times

Gmail’s built-in scheduling feature lets you compose emails now and send them at a specific date and time. For teams, strategic scheduling improves response rates and keeps communication aligned with recipients’ working hours.

How to Set It Up

Compose your email normally. Instead of clicking “Send,” click the dropdown arrow next to the Send button and select “Schedule send.” Choose a preset time (tomorrow morning, tomorrow afternoon) or pick a custom date and time. Gmail supports up to 100 scheduled emails at once.

When Scheduling Matters for Teams

Schedule customer-facing emails to arrive during the recipient’s business hours rather than your own. If your team is on the US East Coast and your customer is in Tokyo, schedule the email for their morning. Schedule internal team updates to arrive before the workday starts so the information is waiting in inboxes rather than interrupting focused work mid-morning.

Pro Tip

If your team regularly communicates across time zones, establish a shared spreadsheet of key contacts and their local business hours. Use this as a reference when scheduling emails. A message that arrives at 9:00 AM in the recipient’s time zone gets read faster than one that lands at 2:00 AM.

Workflow 5: Auto-Save Attachments to Google Drive

Email attachments scatter across inboxes and become impossible to find when multiple team members receive the same files. Automating attachment storage keeps files organized and accessible to everyone who needs them.

How to Set It Up

This workflow requires Zapier or a similar automation platform. Create a Zap with the trigger “New Email in Gmail” (filtered by label or sender) and the action “Upload File in Google Drive.” Specify the target folder in Drive and choose whether to organize by date, sender, or label.

For teams handling contracts, invoices, or proposals, this automation ensures every document lands in a shared Drive folder automatically. No one needs to manually download and upload. The file is accessible to the team within seconds of the email arriving.

Practical Example

A finance team creates a Gmail filter that labels all emails containing “invoice” in the subject. A Zapier workflow watches for that label and saves any attachments to a “2026 Invoices” folder in Google Drive, organized by month. The team’s bookkeeper checks the Drive folder instead of searching through emails. Processing time drops from 20 minutes of email searching to two minutes of folder review.

Workflow 6: Connect Gmail to Slack for Real-Time Team Notifications

Not every email needs a full reply, but some need immediate team awareness. Connecting Gmail to Slack (or Google Chat) lets you surface critical emails in a team channel where everyone sees them instantly.

How to Set It Up

Use Zapier to create a workflow: trigger is “New Email Matching Search in Gmail” (for example, from a VIP client domain or containing “urgent” in the subject) and the action is “Send Channel Message in Slack.” Include the sender name, subject line, and a snippet of the email body in the Slack message.

Be selective about which emails trigger Slack notifications. Posting every email to Slack defeats the purpose. Limit it to time-sensitive situations: emails from your top 10 accounts, messages containing specific escalation keywords, or emails to a monitored address that have gone unanswered for more than your SLA threshold.

Key Insight

The goal of Gmail-to-Slack notifications isn’t to move your inbox into Slack. It’s to create a real-time alert layer for the 5-10% of emails that need immediate team awareness. If your Slack channel is posting dozens of email notifications per day, your filters are too broad. Tighten the criteria until the channel surfaces only urgent items.

Workflow 7: Build Automated Follow-Up Sequences

Gmail doesn’t include a native email sequence feature. For teams that need to send automated follow-ups (sales outreach, onboarding check-ins, renewal reminders), you need a layered approach using either Google Apps Script or a third-party tool.

Simple Approach: Gmail Nudges + Manual Follow-Up

Gmail’s built-in “Nudges” feature surfaces emails that you sent but didn’t receive a reply to, and emails you received but didn’t respond to. Enable Nudges in Settings under “General.” This isn’t true automation, but it prevents follow-ups from falling through cracks.

Advanced Approach: Third-Party Sequence Tools

Tools like Yesware, Mixmax, and Gmelius add sequence capabilities directly inside Gmail. You can build multi-step follow-up sequences that send automatically based on whether the recipient replied, opened, or clicked. These tools track engagement and pause the sequence when the recipient responds.

For sales teams, a basic prospecting sequence might include: Day 1 initial outreach, Day 3 follow-up with a different angle, Day 7 value-add follow-up with a resource, Day 14 final check-in. Automating this sequence across 50 prospects saves hours of manual scheduling and follow-up tracking per week.

Workflow 8: Use Google Workspace Studio for AI-Powered Email Triage

Google Workspace Studio (formerly Workspace Flows) is Google’s new no-code automation builder powered by Gemini AI. It connects Gmail events to intelligent actions across Google Workspace apps without writing code.

What It Can Do

Workspace Studio can detect when you receive an email matching specific criteria, use Gemini AI to summarize the content, assign a priority level, and then take an action like posting a summary to Google Chat, adding a task to Google Tasks, or drafting a reply. Pre-built flows include: “Intelligently detect and label high priority emails” and “Save attachments to a Drive folder and record them in Sheets.”

Current Availability

Correction to an earlier version of this article: Workspace Studio left alpha some time ago. Google announced general availability on December 3, 2025, and finished the rollout to Rapid Release and Scheduled Release domains on March 19, 2026. It runs on named Workspace and Education editions, an administrator switches it on or off, and it is unavailable on personal Gmail accounts.

Workflow 9: Automate Email Analytics and Performance Tracking

Automation should extend beyond handling emails to measuring how your team handles them. Without analytics, you can’t tell whether your automations are reducing email burden or just rearranging it.

What to Track

The two metrics that matter most are average response time and email volume per team member. Response time tells you how quickly your team replies to external contacts. Volume reveals workload distribution and capacity issues. Track both before and after implementing each automation to measure its impact.

How to Set It Up

EmailAnalytics connects to your team’s Gmail accounts and starts tracking response times, email volume by day and hour, and individual performance automatically. Setup takes under five minutes per account. No software installation is required for team members, and no workflow changes are needed. Daily or weekly reports go directly to managers.

This is the automation that makes all other automations accountable. When you implement a new filter or template, you should see its impact in the data within two weeks: lower average response times, reduced volume per person, or a more even distribution of emails across the team.

Pro Tip

Establish a baseline week before implementing any new automations. Record your team’s average response time and per-person email volume using EmailAnalytics. After each automation goes live, compare the new data to your baseline. If response time improves or volume decreases, the automation is working. If metrics don’t move, adjust or replace the workflow.

Workflow 10: Create a Complete Team Email Operating System

The most effective Gmail automation isn’t a single workflow. It’s a coordinated system where filters, templates, routing, and analytics work together. Here’s how to layer the previous nine workflows into a cohesive operating system for your team.

Layer 1: Sorting (Filters + Labels)

Build your filter and label structure first. This layer handles the 60-70% of incoming email that can be automatically categorized. Internal emails, newsletters, vendor communications, and known spam get sorted without human effort.

Layer 2: Routing (Forwarding + Assignment)

Set up auto-forwarding rules or shared inbox assignment to ensure every remaining email reaches the right person. No email should sit in a shared inbox without an owner for more than your SLA threshold.

Layer 3: Response (Templates + Sequences)

Equip your team with shared templates for their top 10 email types. Set up follow-up sequences for outbound communication. This layer reduces the time each email takes to handle from minutes to seconds for common responses.

Layer 4: Integration (Drive + Slack + Calendar)

Connect Gmail to your team’s other tools. Attachments save to Drive automatically. Urgent emails trigger Slack notifications. Meeting requests flow into Google Calendar. This layer eliminates the manual copy-and-paste work that bridges your apps.

Layer 5: Measurement (Email Analytics)

Connect an analytics tool to track whether the entire system is working. Monitor response time trends, volume shifts, and workload balance weekly. Adjust automations based on data rather than on assumptions. This layer ensures continuous improvement instead of one-time setup.

Layer	Tools Used	What It Automates	Expected Time Saved
Sorting	Gmail Filters + Labels	Email categorization	30-60 min/day per person
Routing	Gmail Forwarding, Hiver, or Gmelius	Email assignment	15-30 min/day per person
Response	Gmail Templates, Yesware, or Gmelius	Repetitive replies + follow-ups	30-60 min/day per person
Integration	Zapier, Workspace Studio	Cross-app tasks	15-30 min/day per person
Measurement	EmailAnalytics	Performance tracking	Enables optimization of all layers

A team of five implementing all five layers can realistically recover 25-35 hours per week in aggregate. That’s the equivalent of adding a part-time team member at zero salary cost.

Where Google’s Own Documentation Disagrees With Itself

Three of the figures above read differently depending on which Google property you open. The property you land on decides what you believe the limit is.

Contradiction 1: the filter cap. Google’s Gmail API reference states a maximum of 1,000 filters per account. The consumer Gmail Help article on filters states no limit at all, and never mentions the API figure.

Contradiction 2: recipients per message. Google publishes 2,000 recipients per message for the Workspace web interface, and 500 for the same account through the Gmail API. Neither page references the other.

Contradiction 3: Workspace Studio availability. Google’s December 2025 announcement listed Enterprise Starter, Standard and Plus. A later 2026 post on the same blog listed Enterprise Standard and Plus only, with no note of the change.

The Apps Script quotas page still describes Workspace Studio as part of the Gemini Alpha program, months after Studio reached general availability. Build against that page and you build against a state that no longer exists.

How to Trigger an Automation From a Gmail Label Using AppSheet

AppSheet is the Google-owned tool that the top-ranking result for “gmail automation” documents, and it is the native path most articles skip. It watches for a Gmail label being added or removed, then runs an action against your data.

Google documents the columns an AppSheet Gmail event exposes: body, subject, from, to and cc, date, internal date, labels, message ID and thread ID. All of them are read-only.

The constraints matter more than the capability here. Google labels the feature beta and advises against production use, and it requires a Workspace account. It supports no attachments and no webhooks, and it re-fires the automation on every reply in a thread.

A practical pattern: apply a label with an ordinary Gmail filter, then let AppSheet watch for that label. The filter does the matching, which keeps the automation logic simple and testable.

A Paste-Ready Apps Script for Auto-Labeling and Auto-Replying

None of the pages ranking for “gmail automation” publishes a working script, though several tell you to write one. This one labels unread mail from a given sender and sends a single acknowledgment.

function autoLabelAndReply() { var label = GmailApp.getUserLabelByName('Support'); var threads = GmailApp.search('is:unread from:someone@example.com', 0, 20); threads.forEach(function (t) { t.addLabel(label); t.reply('Thanks, we have your message and will reply within one business day.'); }); }

Open script.google.com, paste it, then add a time-driven trigger to run it every ten minutes. Change the label name and the search query to match your own setup.

Three published quotas bound what this can do. Google publishes 20 triggers per user per script and 6 minutes of runtime per execution. It publishes 100 email recipients per day on consumer Gmail, against 1,500 on Workspace.

Automation only pays off if you can see the difference it made. Measuring your team’s reply times before and after is the point of the exercise. Our how it works page shows what that measurement looks like.

Common Gmail Automation Mistakes

We’ve watched teams implement Gmail automations and make the same mistakes. Avoid these to get value faster and prevent creating new problems.

Over-Filtering to the Point of Missing Emails

Aggressive filters that archive too many emails can cause important messages to disappear. Start conservatively. Label and sort emails first, but keep them in the inbox. Only add “Skip the inbox” to a filter after you’ve confirmed for two weeks that every email matching that criteria is noise.

Building Automations Without Measuring Impact

If you don’t track response time and volume before and after implementing automations, you’re guessing at the impact. Connect EmailAnalytics before you start building workflows. Baseline data makes every subsequent automation measurable.

Creating Personal Automations Instead of Team Standards

When each team member builds their own filters and labels independently, you get inconsistency. Establish a shared filter and label taxonomy at the team level. Document it in a one-page guide. Review it quarterly to add or remove labels as your workflow evolves.

Automating Without Notifying the Team

Auto-forwarding and routing rules that move emails silently can confuse team members who expected to see certain messages. Communicate every new automation to the team before activating it. Explain what it does, which emails it affects, and where those emails will go instead.

Setting and Forgetting

Automations need maintenance. Clients change email domains. New product lines create new email categories. Team members join and leave. Review your filter and routing rules quarterly. Delete rules that reference outdated criteria. Add rules for new patterns you’ve noticed in the past quarter.

Start Here: Your Action Checklist

1. Measure your baseline. Connect EmailAnalytics to your team’s Gmail accounts. Record your average response time and per-person email volume for one week before making any changes.
2. Build your first four filters. Create filters to auto-label internal emails, newsletters, emails from top clients, and emails containing financial keywords. This single step eliminates manual sorting for the majority of your inbox.
3. Create five team templates. Identify the five email types your team sends most frequently. Write a template for each one and share them via a shared Google Doc or a shared inbox tool like Hiver or Gmelius.
4. Set up one cross-app integration. Pick your team’s biggest manual copy-and-paste task and automate it with Zapier. Candidates include saving attachments to Drive, posting urgent emails to Slack, and logging emails in a spreadsheet. One integration proves the concept and builds momentum.
5. Review data in two weeks. After implementing these automations, pull your email analytics and compare to your baseline. Share the results with the team. Set a target for the next improvement cycle.

Frequently Asked Questions

What can you automate in Gmail without third-party tools?

Gmail’s native features support several automations without add-ons. You can create filters to auto-label, archive, forward, or delete emails based on sender, subject, keywords, or attachment status. You can enable templates for repetitive replies. You can schedule emails for future delivery with up to 100 scheduled messages at once. You can set up auto-forwarding rules to route specific emails to teammates. You can also configure vacation responders for automatic out-of-office replies.

How much time can Gmail automation save per week?

The average knowledge worker spends 28% of their workweek on email, roughly 11 hours. Teams that implement filtering, templates, and automated routing often report saving several hours per person per week by eliminating repetitive sorting, typing, and forwarding tasks. The exact savings depend on email volume and how many manual processes you replace with automated workflows.

What is the best automation tool for Gmail teams?

The best tool depends on what you need to automate. For shared inbox workflows with auto-assignment and collision detection, Hiver and Gmelius work directly inside Gmail. For cross-app automations like saving attachments to Google Drive or posting notifications to Slack, Zapier connects Gmail to thousands of other applications. For email analytics and response time tracking, EmailAnalytics provides team performance visibility without changing how your team uses Gmail.

Can Gmail filters replace a shared inbox tool?

Gmail filters can replicate some shared inbox functions for small teams, like routing emails by keyword to specific members via auto-forwarding. But filters cannot assign ownership, prevent duplicate replies through collision detection, track response times, or provide team-level analytics. For teams larger than five people or handling more than 50 emails per day to a shared address, a dedicated shared inbox tool adds the workflow layer that filters alone cannot provide.

How do I set up Gmail templates for my team?

Enable templates in Gmail by going to Settings, then Advanced, and toggling Templates to “Enable.” To create a template, compose an email with your standard response, click the three-dot menu in the compose window, select Templates, then “Save draft as template.” Gmail’s native templates are personal to each user. To share across a team, use a tool like Gmelius or Hiver that provides shared template libraries accessible to everyone from within Gmail.

What is Google Workspace Studio and how does it help with Gmail automation?

Google Workspace Studio is a no-code automation tool that connects Gmail with other Google Workspace apps using Gemini AI. It lets you build workflows triggered by Gmail events and then take intelligent actions like summarizing an email with AI, posting to Google Chat, or updating a Google Sheet. Pre-built flows include high-priority email detection and automatic attachment saving. Google made it generally available on December 3, 2025, on named Workspace and Education editions.

How do I track whether Gmail automations are saving my team time?

Measure two metrics before and after implementing automations: average email response time and email volume per team member. Connect EmailAnalytics to your team’s Gmail accounts to establish a baseline, then track changes after each automation goes live. Response times should decrease as routing gets faster. Per-person volume should drop as filters handle more sorting automatically. If metrics don’t improve, the automation needs adjustment.